Hydrogen & the Hydrogen Economy

What is the Hydrogen Economy? | The Need for the Hydrogen in a Sustainable Energy System | History | Applications | Producing the Hydrogen | Infrastructure to Deliver the Hydrogen | Infrastructure to Store the Hydrogen | Benefits of the Hydrogen Economy | Constraints of the Hydrogen Economy | The Hydrogen Economy in Australia | The Future of the Hydrogen Economy | References, Links & Further Information |

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What is the Hydrogen Economy?

In the Hydrogen Economy, hydrogen rather than carbon will be the basis of the various energy systems we are accustomed to today. Hydrogen is a versatile fuel and can be used in a wide range of applications, particularly transport, but also for electricity production on scales from less than one watt (W) to many megawatts (MW).

 

Currently, the world has a Fossil Fuel Economy, with the vast majority of energy production from coal, oil and gas. The largest economies such as the United States and the largest economic groups, for example OPEC, are built on the production and the use of fossil fuels. Australia is one of the largest per capita users of energy and some of our largest export industries are based on massive consumption of fossil fuels.

The Hydrogen Economy would deliver the same energy benefits but use hydrogen as the delivery source. By introducing innovative technologies, most notably fuel cells, there can be a shift in how energy production and consumption is viewed. The Hydrogen Economy will require major changes in the economics of the energy industry as well as to the infrastructure. There are also technological challenges that need to be overcome before hydrogen can be seen as a viable fuel.

 

The Need for Hydrogen in a Sustainable Energy System

The main drive behind the Hydrogen Economy is that in an ideal situation it is possible to use hydrogen with only heat and water as by-products. Unlike fossil fuels, such as coal or oil, hydrogen fuel can produce energy with no production of greenhouse gases (GHG), such as carbon dioxide (CO₂) or methane (CH₄). When pure hydrogen is the fuel, emissions such as sulphur oxides (SOx), nitrous oxides (NOx) and carbon monoxide (CO) can also be eliminated.

Currently the costs of the various problems caused by energy use are not incorporated into the price people pay to use the energy. If there is to be a phasing out of emissions from energy production, there needs to be new fuel sources to be able to deliver the world’s energy requirements with less externalising of the costs (Dunn, 2001).

Hydrogen is one of the front-runners because it is in development or in use in a wide range of applications and has been welcomed by some key players in the fossil fuel industry, particularly car manufacturers (Sperling and Ogden, 2004). Hydrogen can also help to ensure nation’s energy security and sovereignty as it can be produced domestically, which would be a benefit for those countries whose fossil fuel resources are reliant on imports.

 

History and Development

One of the most commonly cited beginnings of the Hydrogen Economy is the 1874 Jules Verne novel The Mysterious Island in which an energy system based on water (and hydrogen) is described. The technology to run this economy had already been discovered in the late 1830’s but it was not until recently that the thought of a hydrogen-based economy was more than the stuff of fiction (Dunn, 2001).

NASA has been using fuel cells in their space shuttles for the best part of half a century (see Figure 2), but it wasn’t until the 1970’s when a group of engineers at General Motors used the phrase ‘Hydrogen Economy’ to describe this possible energy revolution (Dunn, 2001).

Even more recently, it has been car manufacturers who have again led the push for the Hydrogen Economy. Large car companies such as Daimler Benz have hydrogen fuel cell cars and buses in operation around the world. Whilst they are mostly in small fleet applications, they are still showing that the technology may becoming viable. It is now up to the energy companies to follow suit and provide the fuel and infrastructure for this exciting technology.

 

 

Applications

In its purest form, the Hydrogen Economy would encompass all areas of the energy industry and even open up some new ones. Hydrogen fuel is applicable to an infinite number of applications. When using fuel cells, hydrogen is applicable to both stationary and portable applications. Fuel cells are able to produce energy continuously and efficiently whilst not producing harmful emissions.

In the transport industry, hydrogen can be used to fuel cars, buses, trains, boats and planes. In the electricity industry, utility-scale units are being developed as well as units suitable for distributed generation with each home meeting their own energy needs. The commercial and industrial sectors are already starting to use hydrogen and fuel cells to produce their electricity and heat requirements through co-generation.

Hydrogen fuel cells may replace the rechargeable battery in mobile phones, laptops and portable music players, with many prototypes and some commercial products already becoming available (see Figures 3 and 4). In fact, hydrogen could be applicable to almost any energy requirement.

 

 

Harnessing the Hydrogen Economy

There are some major issues that need to be addressed before the Hydrogen Economy can become a real alternative to fossil fuels. If these issues can be resolved, hydrogen may indeed overtake these prehistoric fuels and become the fuel of the future. The most important issues are:

 

• Producing the hydrogen
• Infrastructure to deliver the hydrogen
• Technology to utilise the hydrogen

Producing the Hydrogen

Hydrogen is not an energy source, it is an energy carrier (Jensen and Ross, 2000, Haberman, 2002). It is found in molecules, like water, and must be detached from these molecules in order for it to be used as a fuel. In order to free hydrogen from these molecules, energy is required. Thus, unlike other sustainable energy sources such as wind or solar, hydrogen requires large amounts of energy for it to become available for use (Jensen and Ross, 2000).

There are two main commercial methods of producing hydrogen (Boulard, 2004):

• The reforming (or processing) of fossil fuels and
• The electrolysis of water with electricity (often derived from fossil fuel generating capacity)

There are more sustainable methods of producing hydrogen that are being developed, such as renewable powered electrolysis, biological water-splitting, photoelectrolysis, reformation of biomass and solar thermal water splitting. Following more research and investment in these sustainable hydrogen production methods, there will be an increasing armory of efficient and commercially competitive production processes to supply a future Hydrogen Economy. These aforementioned methods are covered in detail in this information file.

 

Reforming of Fossil Fuels

Fossil fuels are made up of hydrocarbons and through reforming, hydrogen can be extracted from fossil fuels (see Figure 5). After the hydrogen is extracted, the left over carbon may be released into the atmosphere or sequestered (if this technology is developed) (Boulard, 2004). This is not a sustainable method of producing hydrogen as carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere causing anthropogenic (human produced) climate change. However, natural gas is the preferred fuel to be reformed as it has smaller carbon to hydrogen ratio than coal or oil. Thus, less CO₂ is released for the same production of hydrogen when natural gas is reformed to produce hydrogen (Jensen and Ross, 2000). Almost all of the hydrogen produced today is by steam reforming of natural gas and in the near future, this is viewed to be the principal production method.

There are some advantages of reforming fossil fuels to produce hydrogen. The main advantage is the lower cost compared with electrolysis. Fossil fuels are readily available and already have established delivery systems and are widely accepted. Fossil fuel reforming can be done at the point of use, removing the need for bulky and costly hydrogen storage. Also, because of their acceptance, using fossil fuels in the interim may also help to improve the public perception and understanding of fuel cell technology, providing a stepping stone for the eventual use of pure hydrogen (Sperling and Ogden, 2004).

Despite these advantages, the problems of fossil fuel use remain. Pollution and harmful emissions would still be produced and problems of energy security and sovereignty would still remain (Boulard, 2004). Fossil fuels are important energy sources but should now be seen as a transition fuel rather than a primary fuel. Fossil fuels may still play a part in the early stages of the Hydrogen Economy, but they need to be phased out by putting them to use more efficiently and on an increasingly smaller scale. An abrupt change to hydrogen fuels would be inefficient and costly whilst a smooth transition achieved through phasing out emissions and improving the technology required for the Hydrogen Economy will be more beneficial.

 

One such smooth transition is the reformation of methane (natural gas) to produce hydrogen. Extracting hydrogen from methane can lead to unwanted by-products such as carbon dioxide.  However, researchers at the University of Western Australia are using novel catalytic techniques for developing methods of generating hydrogen from methane with near-zero emission of carbon dioxide. Instead of the remaining carbon in fossil fuels being converted to carbon dioxide (as is usually the case in reforming fossil fuels), carbon in the methane is converted to graphite. The graphite is in a form and particular particle size that is of commercial value to industries such as battery producers (UWA, 2005). 

  

Electrolysis of Water

Producing hydrogen from the electrolysis of water is the fundamental basis of the Hydrogen Economy. If hydrogen is produced by this method it is pure and thus when used in a fuel cell, will produce only water as a by-product. It is this process that is most impressive to the proponents of sustainable energy.

The electrolysis of water is a simple process. Provide water with sufficient electrical energy and it will split into hydrogen molecules (H₂) and oxygen molecules (O₂) and it is for this reason hydrogen is seen as an energy carrier. There must be energy supplied and it is where this energy comes from that will determine how sustainable a Hydrogen Economy will be.

Again, there is support for fossil fuel-based or a nuclear-based hydrogen production through electrolysis. Vast amounts of energy can be produced from these fuels to produce hydrogen. However, this process is not as efficient as producing hydrogen from the reforming of fossil fuels (see above) (Boulard, 2004).

 

There is a strong push to produce hydrogen from renewable sources such as wind or solar. Because of their small input to the world's current energy mix, however, by using them to produce hydrogen the energy can be stored in large quantities, solving one of the largest problems of renewables. The strongest case for renewable electrolysis is the environmental benefits. This method of electrolysis would produce no emissions at the point of hydrogen production. Then the pure hydrogen could be used in a fuel cell, producing no emissions. It is the view towards zero fuel-cycle emissions that is pushing the renewables-hydrogen path (Boulard, 2004).

 

There are five broad areas of ongoing research in the sustainable production of hydrogen;

Renewable Electrolysis

Renewable energy sources such as photovoltaics (PV), wind, biomass, hydro and geothermal can provide clean and sustainable electricity for our nation. However, some types of renewable energy are limited by the fact that they have intermittent and seasonal energy production. One solution to this problem is to produce hydrogen through the electrolysis of water and use that hydrogen in a fuel cell to produce electricity during times of low power production or during peak demand or to use the hydrogen in fuel cell vehicles (NREL, 2006).

 

Biological Water Splitting

Certain photosynthetic microbes produce hydrogen from water in their metabolic activities using light energy. Photobiological technology holds great promise, but because oxygen is produced along with the hydrogen, the technology must overcome the limitation of oxygen sensitivity of the hydrogen-evolving enzyme systems. Researchers are addressing this issue by screening for naturally occurring organisms that are more tolerant of oxygen, and by creating new genetic forms of the organisms that can sustain hydrogen production in the presence of oxygen. A new system is also being developed that uses a metabolic switch (sulfur deprivation) to cycle algal cells between a photosynthetic growth phase and a hydrogen production phase (NREL, 2006).

 

Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting

The cleanest way to produce hydrogen is by using sunlight to directly split water into hydrogen and oxygen. Multijunction cell technology developed by the photovoltaic industry is being used for photoelectrochemical (PEC) light harvesting systems that generate sufficient voltage to split water and are stable in a water/electrolyte environment. The NREL PEC system produces electricity from sunlight without the expense and complication of electrolysers, at a solar-to-hydrogen conversion efficiency of 12.4% lower heating value (LHV) using captured light. Research is underway to identify more efficient, lower cost materials and systems that are durable and stable against corrosion in an aqueous environment  (NREL, 2006). Closely related is production of hydrogen using thermochemical reactions, where water is decomposed into hydrogen and oxygen through combinations of chemical reactions, and these reactions are carried out by utilising only heat to drive them. When water and heat energy is given to the system, only the elemental constituents (H₂ and O₂) and waste heat are generated. Similarly, photochemical hydrogen production employs a system of chemical reactants which conduct the splitting of water. However, the driving force is not thermal energy but light, generally solar light. In this sense, this system is similar to the photosynthetic system present in green plants (Urade, 2003).

 

Reforming of Biomass and Wastes

Hydrogen can be produced via pyrolysis or gasification of biomass resources such as agricultural residues like peanut shells; consumer wastes including plastics and waste grease; or biomass specifically grown for energy uses. Biomass pyrolysis produces a liquid product (bio-oil) that contains a wide spectrum of components that can be separated into valuable chemicals and fuels, including hydrogen. NREL researchers are currently focusing on hydrogen production by catalytic reforming of biomass pyrolysis products. Specific research areas include reforming of pyrolysis streams and development and testing of fluidisable catalysts (NREL, 2006).

 

Solar Thermal Water Splitting

NREL researchers have demonstrated that highly concentrated sunlight can be used to generate the high temperatures needed to split methane into hydrogen and carbon. Concentrated solar energy can also be used to generate temperatures of several hundred to over 2,000 degrees at which thermochemical reaction cycles can be used to produce hydrogen. Such high-temperature, high-flux solar driven thermochemical processes offer a novel approach for the environmentally benign production of hydrogen. Very high reaction rates at these elevated temperatures give rise to very fast reaction rates that enhance the production rates significantly and more than compensate for the intermittent nature of the solar resource (NREL, 2006).

 

Infrastructure to Deliver the Hydrogen

There is no doubt that there will be the need for infrastructure, with the specific role of producing and supplying hydrogen, as a main feature of the Hydrogen Economy. However, there is doubt over whether this infrastructure will be put in place before the technologies to utilise hydrogen or vice-versa. This is often referred to as the chicken and the egg dilemma (Bordeaux, 2002, Jones, 2002).

The argument is essentially that there is a major economic risk involved in setting up infrastructure for a technology that is not proven. Equally, there is a risk involved in developing a technology that has no infrastructure in place to make it convenient and useful (Dunn, 2001). However, this issue is starting to be resolved. With automobile manufacturers taking a leading role in developing the technology, they are exerting pressure for infrastructure to be developed.

As the Hydrogen Economy will require infrastructure to produce the hydrogen, there will need to be an effective way of delivering the hydrogen from its point of production to its point of use. There are a number of options with the most likely being transportation by pipeline or storage in tanks as either liquid or gas. Each of the options has its advantages and limitations.

Ideally, for transport use, hydrogen would be delivered to stations where you could fill up your tank with hydrogen instead of petrol (Stephenson, 2002). Similarly, a reticulated system connected to homes and businesses would also be an effective way of delivering hydrogen, much like the way natural gas is distributed (Jensen and Ross, 2000).

These systems would be costly to implement and they should be viewed as long-term solutions to be worked towards. At the moment there is a need for a small number of stations to deliver to a niche market, particularly in transport applications. This is comparable to supplying natural gas and diesel for the percentage of the vehicle market for which these are primary fuels (Boulard, 2004).

 

Pipelines

In Europe there is around 1500 km of hydrogen pipeline network and in the US there is 720 km. Over large distances, pipeline transport of hydrogen could be an effective way of transporting energy. Hydrogen pipes that are in use today are constructed of regular pipe steel, and operate under pressure at 10-20 bar, with a diameter of 25-30 cm. The oldest existing system is found in the Ruhr area. It is 210 km long and distributes hydrogen between 18 producers and consumers. This network has been in use for 50 years without any accidents. The longest hydrogen pipeline is 400 km and runs between France and Belgium. With little or no changes, the majority of existing steel natural gas lines can be used to transport mixtures of natural gas and hydrogen. It is also possible, with certain modifications, to use pure hydrogen in certain existing natural gas lines, but this depends on the carbon levels in the pipe metal. The fact is that by using efficient hydrogen technology such as fuel cells, etc., the same amount of transported energy will yield increased output at final consumption (Bellona, 2002).

 

Transport of Liquid Hydrogen

Liquid hydrogen (LH₂) is hydrogen that has been cooled below -253ºC. The cooling process requires a great deal of energy, but for long-distance transportation and as fuel in certain applications used in air and space travel, LH₂ still has obvious advantages over other fuels.

 
Roadway transportation

Hydrogen can be shipped with tank trucks in both liquid and compressed states and several companies currently deliver these types of tank trucks (Bellona, 2002).

 

Ocean transportation

Hydrogen can be transported as a liquid in tank ships. These are not too different from liquid natural gas (LNG) tankers, aside from the fact that better insulation is required to keep the hydrogen cool over long distances. The Japanese WE-NET and the German-Canadian Euro Quebec have reported on the use of such tanks. The evaporated hydrogen may be used as fuel onboard. In 1990, the German institute for materials research declared that LH₂ could be given the same safety rating as liquid petroleum gas (LPG) and LNG, and transport of LH₂ into German harbours was approved (Bellona, 2002).

Air transportation

There are several advantages in transporting LH₂ by air rather than by ship. LH₂ is lightweight and the delivery time is much shorter, and evaporation is therefore not a big problem. Studies on this have been done by CDS Research Ltd. in Canada, with support from the WE-NET program (Bellona, 2002).

 

Infrastructure to Store the Hydrogen

If hydrogen is to be used on a large-scale basis, storage is a key problem. In vehicles for instance, it must be possible to store enough hydrogen to allow for the same driving distance as today’s cars. In the energy sector the ability to store the hydrogen effectively, quickly and inexpensively is most important. Hydrogen is a substance with high-energy content compared to its weight. This is the reason that hydrogen is naturally the first choice in space travel and very well suited for air travel. On the other hand, the energy content compared to volume is rather low. This poses greater challenges with respect to storage compared to storage of petrol (Bellona, 2002).

 

There are basically three options:

• hydrogen may be compressed and stored in a pressure tank
• hydrogen may be cooled to a liquid state and kept cold in a properly insulated tank
• hydrogen may be stored in a solid compound (Bellona, 2002).

 

Compressed Hydrogen

This has been a successful method of storing hydrogen for many years. There are three main types of tanks:

• Steel
• Aluminium core encased with fibreglass (composite)
• Plastic core encased with fibreglass (composite) (Bellona, 2002).

 

In stationary systems where weight and size are not decisive factors, steel tanks are a good solution, but for vehicles, traditional pressure tanks are problematic regarding both weight and volume. There has been considerable breakthrough during the last few years in the development of a new type of composite tank which can store hydrogen at 350 bar pressure and at the same time meet the current safety standards. Special H₂ compressors are normally used to pressurise the hydrogen. If pressure electrolysers are used to supply compressed hydrogen, the process of compressing could be reduced or eliminated altogether depending on the required pressure level. This would be a more efficient system, and a simpler and less expensive solution (Bellona, 2002).

Liquid Hydrogen

Hydrogen can be stored as a liquid (LH₂) at 20 K (-253º C) in super insulated tanks. LH₂ is particularly interesting for long distance transportation purposes and as fuel in spacecraft and airplanes. In order to cool the hydrogen down, energy equaling 30-40% of that in the fuel is needed. However LH₂ is especially well suited for use in air and space travel, where its characteristics rate it higher than any other fuel, and today, LH₂ is the most frequently used fuel within space travel (Bellona, 2002).

Metal Hydride

Certain metals and metal alloys have the ability to absorb hydrogen under moderate pressure and temperature, creating hydrides. A hydride is a compound which contains hydrogen and one or more other elements. A metal hydride tank contains, in addition to a heat manipulation system, granular metal which absorbs the hydrogen like a sponge absorbs water. The heat system draws heat away when hydrogen is filled into the tank, and applies heat when the hydrogen is taken out of the tank. The hydrogen is released from the metal hydride when heat is applied. This heat may, for example, be excess heat from the fuel cells. A metal hydride tank is considered to be a very safe fuel system in the event of a collision because the loss of pressure in a punctured tank will cool down the metal hydride, which will then cease to release hydrogen. Several metal hydrides are available commercially, representing a good solution for hydrogen storage where the weight factor is not a problem. For vehicles, the problem with metal hydride is the high weight compared to the amount of hydrogen stored (Bellona, 2002).

 

Hydrogen in Carbon Nanostructures

Certain carbon nanostructures have a very large surface area and research has been going on for several years to try to store hydrogen in these materials. Recent research has shown that carbon nanostructures such as nanofibres, nanotubes and fullerenes have shown promising abilities to absorb hydrogen and have several interesting qualities that can be used in hydrogen technology. For example, they can be used in fuel cells for efficient hydrogen storage (Bellona, 2002).

 

Methanol

The advantage of methanol is that it is liquid under normal air pressure and room temperature, and has a high content of hydrogen compared to other fossil fuels. Methanol is produced from natural gas by steam reforming the natural gas into synthesis gas. In a methanol car with a reformer, the methanol will be reformed into hydrogen, which is then used in the fuel cell. The energy loss in these two processes is high and the system efficiency therefore low. Unfortunately there are many problems with the development of a large methanol based transition towards a hydrogen economy. It has often been stated that methanol can be transported and handled just like gasoline, but this is inaccurate. Methanol is corrosive, and a methanol spill could cause severe damage to the environment as, unlike oil, it mixes with water and is almost impossible to reclaim once spilled. A fuel cell car with a methanol reformer will also have high levels of CO₂ emissions and would also release hydrocarbon and CO pollutants. Increased distribution of methanol will also pose a substantial risk of poisoning both humans and animals (Bellona, 2002).

 

Petrol and other Hydrocarbons

Converting petroleum (or alternatively a special blend, a form of naphtha) into hydrogen-rich gas in cars has also been the subject of much research and development. Oil companies, having invested enormous amounts of money into gasoline infrastructure, are especially interested in this option. These temporary solutions offer, as with methanol, less performance and fuel efficiency than solutions based on pure hydrogen. This would also require a complex reformer, which makes it expensive and heavy, making the vehicles more susceptible to technical problems and reducing efficiency  (Bellona, 2002).

 

Stationary Storage

Hydrogen can be stored in pressure tanks, in underground cavities and as a liquid in super-insulated tanks. The expenses of storing hydrogen in caverns will vary according to the geological formations, but this could be an inexpensive option. Usable as such underground storage areas may be empty reservoirs, aquifers, caverns or empty cavities in salt formations (Bellona, 2002).

 

Benefits of the Hydrogen Economy

Wide Range of Applications

Hydrogen can be used for almost any of the current energy applications. Suitable for portable and stationary applications, it is an extremely versatile fuel. Fuel cells themselves are modular and can be used to provide a wide range of outputs. This is a distinct advantage over many fossil fuels, some of which are only suitable for large scale uses.

Efficient, Continuous Power Supply

Fuel cells convert the energy carried in hydrogen to electricity relatively efficiently. They are more efficient than internal combustion engines, there is the benefit of co-generation efficiencies of over 80% and they even have benefits over batteries in portable uses. They supply energy as long as fuel is available, which makes them ideal in transport applications and those that require continuous power.

Environmental Benefits

If hydrogen can be produced from a renewable source it is a very clean supplier of energy. From point of production to point of use there will be none of the greenhouse gas emissions that are associated with fossil fuel use in energy generation. Replacing fossil fuels with hydrogen produced from renewables would mean exploration, extraction and processing of fossil fuels (of which are energy intensive and cause significant negative environmental impacts) would all decline.

Support from Car Manufacturers

Unlike other alternative transport fuels, hydrogen has been supported and promoted by car manufacturers. They have taken the lead and designed and released cars and buses powered by hydrogen. The interest has been fueled by their ability to deliver benefits to consumers such as fuel efficiency and benefits of electric motors such as quiet operation and better acceleration. By providing the vehicles the car manufacturers are presenting the challenge to oil companies to become energy companies and supply the hydrogen market with the fuel to run it. For more information on the car manufacturers actively involved with the development of hydrogen powered cars see the RISE Information Portal Fuel Cell Technologies file.

Fuel Security and Sovereignty

The oil industry is expected to go into decline as discovery and production become unable to meet demand. The current market is volatile and prices continue to fluctuate. This is enhanced by a precarious political position, particularly in the Middle East. Hydrogen can alleviate these problems as it has the ability to replace oil as the fuel for most transport applications. It can be produced domestically, reducing nations  dependence on imported fuels and help to distribute the energy industry equitably, reducing political tension.

Strong Relationship with Renewables

The Hydrogen Economy in its purest form would be based on renewable energy. Thus, the development of renewable technologies and infrastructure will be enhanced by the development of hydrogen technologies and infrastructure. The reverse would also be true. There is little incentive to develop renewables in a Fossil Fuel Economy.

 

Constraints of the Hydrogen Economy

The "Chicken and Egg" Dilemma

There is a serious question mark over what comes first: the technology to utilise hydrogen or the infrastructure to deliver it? There is not likely to be development of wide-spread hydrogen delivery systems without enough uses to require such a system. Similarly, consumers are unlikely to buy products that run on hydrogen if there is no convenient way of providing the hydrogen. However, the fossil fuel industry has already faced and overcome these challenges. This will make it hard to displace but may also offer some valuable lessons. 

Technical Issues

The technology to run the Hydrogen Economy is not developed to a level that makes it competitive with traditional technologies. There are continual improvements and it is envisaged that the potential of hydrogen-fueled technologies will be superior to fossil fuel technologies. However, this is not yet a reality and major technical issues need to be addressed, such as hydrogen storage, fuel cell costs and system durability.

Economic and Political Barriers

The economic barriers facing the Hydrogen Economy are similar to those facing renewable energy sources. They are seen as having a large risk associated with them and finding financial backing is difficult at acceptable interest rates. Coal, oil and gas are recognised commodities and are viewed as much safer investments. There are large subsidies and incentives for the fossil fuel industry whilst the environmental benefits of a Hydrogen Economy are not considered in dollar terms.

Governments, particularly the United States and Australia, are lobbied heavily by the fossil fuel industry and they will continue to provide incentives for the growth of these industries. Changing to an economy based on hydrogen would require a major shift in the view of such countries. However, countries like Iceland and Germany have already made this shift aiming to have a sustainable energy economy. Iceland’s current electricity is sourced from geothermal and hydroelectric power and the plan is to have their transport run on hydrogen over the next 30 years with a view to exporting hydrogen to the rest of Europe (Dunn, 2001).

Cost

There will be a considerable cost associated with establishing a Hydrogen Economy. At present fuel cells are expensive to produce due to lack of large scale manufacturing procedures or demand. Major infrastructure will be required and this will be expensive. Large amounts of money are already invested in energy infrastructure and in current political and economic climates it may be a challenge to shift investments towards a Hydrogen Economy.  

Safety

One of the major barriers to the use of hydrogen is the perceived safety risk. There is a strong association between hydrogen and the infamous Hindenberg disaster. Whilst recent evidence has pointed to the materials used to build the zeppelin as the cause of the fire, the image of the burning airship remains vivid and helps to maintain the perception that hydrogen is an unsafe fuel (Thomas and Zalbowitz, Hydrogen aus). In fact, hydrogen may be safer than the fuels we are currently comfortable with. Hydrogen disperses quickly and storage tanks are no more prone to explosion than petrol or gas tanks. Hydrogen burns far more quickly than petrol and in one direction rather than spreading like a petrol fire (Thomas and Zalbowitz, Hydrogen aus).

Standards and Legal Frameworks

The early introduction of international standards for all countries is important in avoiding unnecessary extra costs such as redesign as a consequence of diverging standards and safety requirements. Standardisation would also simplify the international trading of hydrogen technology. In this vein, the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) has established a technical committee for hydrogen technology. In March 1999 the first hydrogen standard was published (Bellona, 2002) and many more standards have been developed and revised.

 

The Hydrogen Economy in Australia

Australia is heavily reliant on fossil fuels. Whilst historically, Australia has been able to meet its energy needs without imports, it is expected that Australia will soon begin importing significant amounts of heavy oil. By moving towards a Hydrogen Economy, Australia could avoid these imports and maintain control over its energy industry.

There is an interest in using hydrogen as a fuel within Australia. The Perth Fuel Cell Bus Trial not only demonstrates the operation of fuel cell buses but also analyses a number of areas of the Hydrogen Economy, including the effective delivery of hydrogen, the economic performance as well as public reaction. By looking at the overall picture rather than just the technology, this project gives an indication of the viability of a Hydrogen Economy.

 

CSIRO

The CSIRO is also active in solar-hydrogen production by water-splitting research. They aim to engineer materials with appropriate optical, electronic and chemical properties for use as photo-catalysts in efficient and cost effective photoelectrochemical cells. Their current research encompasses the areas of materials science, plasma and thin film physics, electrochemistry and analytical chemistry. The main areas of research are:

• Synthesis and modification of suitable semiconducting materials using a range of techniques (Flame Pyrolysis, Filtered-Arc Deposition, Oxidative Annealing, Sol-gel Preparations, Ball Milling, and Nanostructuring.
• Materials Characterisation of materials using different analytical techniques (X-ray Diffraction Spectroscopy (XRD), X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), UV-Visible Spectroscopy, Electrical Measurements, Electrochemical Measurements, and Impedence spectroscopy).

 

UNSW'S Solar Hydrogen Program

The UNSW team's particular expertise is in photosensitive oxide semiconductors. UNSW's research program aims for the development of a commercial (i.e., practical and inexpensive) device for the production of hydrogen from photolysis of water using solar energy. The UNSW hydrogen-generating device can be marketed internationally and has no moving parts, so maintenance is minimal. Offers to be involved in UNSW's research are coming from the US, Europe and Asian countries (UNSW, 2004).

 

University of Tasmania’s Diesel-Hydrogen Engine

The Hydrogen and Allied Renewable Technology research group, based at the University of Tasmania’s School of Engineering, has discovered that running a compression engine with a combination of diesel and hydrogen increases power output, drastically cuts emissions and massively reduces diesel consumption. The discovery, at the specially-designed Hydrogen Laboratory which was sponsored by Hydro Tasmania, has the potential to be used for both domestic and commercial purposes. Associate Professor Vishy Karri, of the Intelligent Car Program at UTAS, said the prototype was a gigantic step forward towards a hydrogen economy. Dr Karri said that adding just a “spoon full” of diesel and running the generator with hydrogen resulted in a 20 per cent increase in power output. “We can reduce diesel consumption by 80 per cent without any loss of power. In fact, there is such an increase in power output that it is usually only restricted by the generator itself! The mixing of both hydrogen and diesel in the same combustion chamber is a revolutionary world-first. Other conversion kits on the market are designed to be ‘all or nothing’ – either 100 per cent diesel or 100 per cent hydrogen. There is nothing available for diesel engines that is specifically for diesel-hydrogen gas mixtures.” Dr Karri said one of the most exciting aspects of the system is that it is retro-fittable. “Instead of creating a whole new engine we have designed a conversion procedure that can be fitted to any existing diesel infrastructure. The system will give any diesel engine the ability to generate 20 per cent more power, and can also reduce ongoing diesel consumption by up to 80 per cent. This is particularly relevant when there is a shortage of other renewable energy and fossil fuel sources in the world,” Dr Karri said (UTAS, 2005).

 

The Future for the Hydrogen Economy

The ideal hydrogen future will see convenient distribution of hydrogen to a wide range of uses. You will go to the service station and fill the tank in your car with hydrogen or may choose to fill it up from a gas outlet in your home which could also be connected to your home’s fuel cell which will provide your electricity needs. The hydrogen will be produced by electrolysis, a process made possible by the expanded renewable energy industry. How will this future become reality?

Initially, there needs to be recognition that this future is possible. Demonstrating that the technology works and it is financially viable are the issues that need resolving. By placing a greater value on the environment, fossil fuel use will be discouraged and alternatives, particularly hydrogen will become more desirable.

A gradual phasing out of fossil fuels by using them for fuel reforming and the phasing out of the most emissive fuels (starting with coal) combined with using more efficient technologies and processes will help to make the transition to hydrogen relatively smooth. Fossil fuels can be used to produce hydrogen, allowing fuel cell development to continue to a point when the investment in renewable hydrogen would be justified.

 

References, Links and Further Information

RISE Resources - Information regarding available renewable energy resources.

RISE Technologies - An extensive collection of information regarding renewable energy technologies.

RISE Applications & System Design - Renewable energy application information and system designs.

RISE System Displays - Case studies and information on installed renewable energy systems & performance data.

 

Fuel Cell Technologies - RISE Information Portal

Bellona, 2002. “Hydrogen” (Online) http://www.bellona.no/en/energy/hydrogen/report_6-2002/index.html (Accessed February 16 2007).

Bordeaux, C., 2002. “Hydrogen Fueling Infrastructure: What Comes First, the Chicken or the Egg? - NHA News” (Online) http://www.hydrogenus.com/advocate/ad72inf.asp (Accessed 16 February 2007).

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